其實貿易的動力很單純,就是有利可圖。所以研究國際貿易的經濟學家興趣放在利益(Gains from Trade)以及成本(Trade Costs)。
以上的答案描繪了對於貿易動力的理論發展(*ceteris paribus):
A. Ricardian Model 認為貿易來自科技落差,國家會選擇相對價格較便宜,製造並出口具有相對優勢(comparative advantage)的商品。如果同一國的產業之間,生產技術落差越大,比較優勢越明顯,開放貿易所獲得的利益也越大。
B. Heckscher Ohlin Model 認為貿易來自每個國家資源豐沛的程度不ㄧ,進而造成生產要素相對價格(factor prices)不同。豐沛(abundant)的定義是比較兩國之間的勞力/資本比;另外也將商品分成勞力密集和資本密集兩種。在Continuum of Goods模型中,若生產要素價格不同,便會有專業分工的情況。
以上兩個模型都集中探討,為何非常不同的國家彼此之間會貿易。但Paul Krugman的新貿易理論探討為什麼其實大多數貿易(至少在中國崛起之前)仍集中在富國之間(North-North Trade)。
C. Monopolistic Competition Model 從企業成本角度出發,解釋為何貿易集中在相似的國家之間。假設企業成本架構等都一樣,但製造稍稍不同的商品(differentiated goods),給予monopolistic power。
開放貿易之後,規模經濟(量越大平均成本越便宜)帶來規模效應(Scale Effect),因均衡價格降低,需求變得更彈性,一些公司不堪虧損退出市場後帶來選擇效應(Selection Effect),短期將造成失業等問題。
克魯曼的模型並沒有解釋為什麼在成本架構一樣的狀況之後,有些公司選擇退出,有些選擇留下。若假設企業生產效率不一,則淘汰效率較差的公司,選擇效應將淘汰效率差的企業,使得整體生產力提高。原本的模型生產力都一樣,所以就算有人退出也不影響原本的平均生產力。
Melitz (2003) 的模型奠基於克魯曼的模型,但是假設同一產業之間的企業效率不同,解釋為何出口商的效率較非出口商高(既出口又供應國內需求的效率最高)。假設生產力遵循一定的分佈,廠商在進入市場時需要給付一定費用(克魯曼模型則為Free entry, Free exit),在抽籤揭曉生產力後給付,按照競爭的程度決定zero cutoff productivity的效率落在哪裏。由於zero cutoff productivity以上的廠商才有生存的機會,平均生產力、平均利潤也取決於zero cutoff productivity。
效率高的企業定價可以更低(markup更低),產出和銷量更大,因為營收取決於唯一的生產要素:勞力的生產效率,利潤也更多。
結構對稱的兩國開放貿易後,同樣的生產力抽籤過程再一次決定哪些企業有能力出口,哪些被淘汰(因為競爭推高了cutoff productivity),哪些只能供應國內市場。但在貿易之下,所有原本本國的企業在國內的市場占比都下降,所以純供應國內市場的廠商將蒙受損失,有能力出口的廠商則可以透過佔有國外市場來彌補損失。國內的廠商數將比開放貿易前低,但消費者總體的選擇更多,福祉提高。留存的國內廠商平均生產力也會提高(因為淘汰生產力較低的廠商),這一點和克魯曼的模型不同,市場競爭的結果會使原本就較有競爭力的廠商受惠更多。
為什麼要了解貿易的動力?
政治歸政治,經濟歸經濟是不可能的。國家的政策決定了邊境和關稅相關的貿易成本和利益,進而影響國內消費者的福祉和企業的獲利。
若想要觀察或估算「貿易」,可以從價格和貿易量下手:為什麼某些國家之間貿易量多?為什麼某些國家之間貿易量少?為什麼價格在A地是這樣,在B地又翻了一倍?為什麼國家之間的實質薪資不一樣?(我自己覺得很有趣的,人到底算是勞力還是資本還是技術呢?)
引力模型(Gravity Model)架構基本的貿易流量,貿易國彼此之間距離越遠,貿易量越少;運送成本越昂貴,到異地的價格也越高;貿易量也當然和國家的大小有直接相關。現代科技的發展大幅降低了運送成本,尤其是貨運和冷藏技術,讓過去無法運送的商品也都可以順利送達。
貿易經濟學家在估算成本時,不只估算運送的物理成本,或是貨物被卡關時的時間成本,還有許多潛藏的成本是關於溝通、資訊和信任——奈及利亞的雜貨商販可能會克服艱辛地取得簽證,為的是飛去中國一趟看看最新的商品、驗貨、和供應商套交情,縱使他們的生意只是社區的小商販。這樣的行為看似昂貴,其實也讓他們在這個不斷和供應商打交道的賽局中,可以取得比較好的價格。
套利(arbitrage)是經濟學家預期的自然理性行為,緬甸出產的玉石在中國行情大好,自然會有人願意挖礦琢磨然後一路運送到中國市場去,只要這樣的行為有利可圖。如果我們生活在一個沒有交易摩擦力的完美競爭世界,透過商人互通有無,不斷套利的行為,應該會達到貨物不管在哪裡都是同樣價格的理想境界,而偏離這個理想價格的溢價便是摩擦力造成的額外成本。當然,現實世界沒有那麼多高價值低運送成本的合法貨物,有時候套利沒有那麼簡單。
引力模型雖然簡單,他的原型並沒有經濟理論的支持,近代重新挖掘這個理論,加入多邊貿易阻力因素,建構成有微觀基礎的實用模型。
當道的貿易理論會深遠地影響各國政策的制定和原則,在估算利與弊的時候,到底經濟學家有沒有考量周全,會大幅影響結論和輿論的走向。對於一些詞彙也會產生刻板印象,常常,這樣的刻板印象無助於抉擇。
1989年加拿大和美國的自由貿易協定,貿易經濟學家在簽訂協定之前估算加拿大將大幅透過效率提升而獲利,這些估算影響了政策和輿論的風向。簽訂協定後,事實卻不如預期。
原本應該賺到的效率提升因為加拿大降低關稅而抵銷無幾——同樣的情況也發生在一些發展中國家,在開放貿易之後,和國外商品競爭的本地產業工廠規模縮小,而提升的效率也不高。最後,加拿大從貿易中的獲利並非來自規模效應,而是選擇效應,因為淘汰了效率差的公司,提昇總體平均生產力。國家則面臨短期內失業和調整的成本。
自由貿易協定常常被立刻視為好的,就算短期會帶來利潤,這些利潤在考量國內的衝擊之後(就被影響的產業和個人予以賠償、輔導轉型…),是否仍然值得?自由貿易協定不是一定就是好或壞。這也跟國家原本的體質有關係,譬如原本的社會福利網是否完善、協助產業轉型方面的投資是否充足。
邁向自由貿易的社會,應該將這樣的結構性轉變和科技轉變一視同仁,而非一昧認為被開放市場和新科技屏棄的產業和商家本來就「應該被淘汰」,沒有一個正常理性的社會會「淘汰」人,失業和挫敗只會讓人失去生產力和消費力,將這些資源轉置到更有生產力的部門才是理性的做法。
貿易的動力:比較優勢(Comparative Advantage) vs. 規模報酬遞增(Increasing return)
教授幾乎一定會提到的小趣事,經濟學家被數學家瞧不起然後成功反擊(回嘴)的故事。
1969年數學家Stanislaw Ulam揶揄當時在哈佛大學作客的Paul Samuelson,「從所有社會科學範疇中,告訴我一項真實且重要的命題(proposition)。」
Paul Samuelson在多年後認為理想的回答是:David Ricardo的比較優勢。
“That it is logically true need not be argued before a mathematician; that is is not trivial is attested by the thousands of important and intelligent men who have never been able to grasp the doctrine for themselves or to believe it after it was explained to them.”
其實Paul Samuelson也是將經濟學數學化的重要推手,所以他來回答Ulam的問題也是很恰當的。比較優勢是經濟學的第一堂課,Samuelson說這是「許多重要和聰慧的人們都難以理解、難以置信的概念」,可能會讓人疑惑,但是比較優勢——尤其是均衡,就算你擅長製造所有的東西,比較優勢仍然可以為貿易國帶來利益,其實沒有那麼直覺。
要找出各國擁有的比較優勢也不簡單,通常需要檢視一國的進出口,如果你是一國之主,想要從零開始投資、扶植擁有比較優勢(潛能)的產業,其實很難有標準步驟找出哪一個產業值得這樣做。尤其是富國與富國之間的交易產品常常長得差不多。
70年代開始,一批經濟學家,包括保羅・克魯曼,開始嘗試將規模報酬遞增(increasing return of trade)寫入模型中。從而解釋為什麼那麼多中間產品(intermediate goods)和產業內貿易(intra-industry trade)。
在古典模型,譬如Heckscher Ohlin模型中,一國的產業要嘛純出口,要嘛純進口,不會有同時出口又進口產品。真實的世界當然不是這樣,台灣生產本地的茶葉,也會進口印度的茶葉。組裝口進口同一產業中的零組件,組裝後再次出口。
70年代的經濟學家發現,高技術勞力的薪資和受雇率都成長了,但對於高/低技術含量的產品需求同時增加,數據發現產業內對於高技術勞工的需求上升了。根據Stopler Samuelson,產品的相對價格提高,將增加該產品密集使用的生產要素價格。所以,是因為對高技術含量的產品需求增加,推高了高技術勞工的薪資,還是因為技術發展傾向增加了對高技術勞工的需求,進而增加薪資?
過往科技被視為是中立的生產要素,但是在這邊,技術的進步裨益了高技術勞力,加上跨國的貿易成本降低,導致全球生產零碎化(fragmentation),低技術勞力相對價格較昂貴的國家(譬如美國),外包技術含量低的生產步驟到低技術勞力相對較便宜的國家(譬如墨西哥,但是這些封裝、生產零組件的技術在當地可能是高技術!)。
原本經濟學家認為這樣的外包行為會推高美國的高技術勞力薪資,並且降低墨西哥的高技術勞力薪資,但事實上兩國的高技術勞力薪資同時成長。
透過簡單的HOV模型,將中間產品分為高技術含量(R&D,視為出口商品)和低技術含量(components,視為進口商品),分析外包後的生產組合。發現透過外包,藉由出口利潤購買低技術含量的中間商品,可以提高最終商品的總生產量,就算出口相對價格(Term of Trade)降低也仍然較封閉(autarky)時總生產量來得高。
重要的定理/概念
Factor Price Equalization Theorem (Samuelson 1949)
Suppose that two countries are engaged in free trade, having identical technologies but different factor endowments. If both countries produce both goods and FIRs do not occur, then the factor prices (w, r) are equalized across the countries. (Feenstra, p.13)
Stopler-Sameulson Theorem (1941)
An increase in the relative price of a good will increase the real return to the factor used intensively in that good, and reduce the real return to the other factor. (Feenstra, p.15)
Rybczynski Theorem (1955)
An increase in a factor endowment will increase the output of the industry using it intensively, and decrease the output of the other industry. (Feenstra, p.18)
Factor Intensity Reversals, FIR
Factor intensity reversal means that a good/industry is relatively capital intensive compared with other goods/industries within a country/region but relatively labor intensive with other goods/industries within another country/region. (Revisit FIRs — Feenstra, p.24)
Trade leads to incomplete specialization in HO 2x2 model and factor prices are equalized. When the endowment vector of one country does not lie in the “cone of diversification”, fully specialization will happen.
Heckscher-Ohlin Theorem
Each country will export the good that uses its abundant factor intensively
Modelling different Tech in HOV
Trefler’s Theorem (Trefler 1993a): Trefler allowed all factors in every country to differ in their productivities through productivity parameter except one country (US)
- check if the productivity parameters are positive
- compare these parameters to other economic data to evaluate how ‘reasonable’ they are
Trefler (1995) allowed factor requirement matrix A^i to differ across countries.
Trefler’s Theorem (Trefler 1998): problem of using data on different technologies across countries (Feenstra, p.56)
Helpman theorem 1987
The volume of trade relative to the relative size of countries (GDP) will be proportional to the disperson index. Dispersion index is higher when countries have similar sizes, lower when there are huge differences in sizes.
If countries are completely specialized in their outputs, identical and homothetic tastes, free trade are assumed.
Anderson and van Wincoop 2003 Theorem
Small countries experience a larger impact of the border effects. (p.160)
Assume symmetric transport costs. Anderson and van Wincoop introduce a term of “indexes of multilateral resistance” into the estimation of price indexes. The multilateral resistance index depends on transport costs.
They also introduce a coefficient gamma on the cross-border indicator variable.
Leontief’s Paradox
Leontief’s Test (1953) results found that the U.S. exported more labor-intensive goods. However, the U.S. is categorized as a capital intensive country. Leontief’s result went against the Heckscher-Ohlin Theorem, which would suggest that the U.S. exports capital intensive goods as a captial abundant country.
Problem of Leontief’s test is that it estimate foreign technology with the U.S. tech. (other problems see Leamer)
Continuum of Goods
Index and rank all the goods according to certain traits. (Feenstra, p.88) For example, under the assumption of no FIRs, in order to rank a range of activities by increasing order of capital intensity.
Lemma — Factor Price Insensitivity
So long as both goods are produced, and factor intensity reversal (FIRs) do not occur, then each price vector (p1, p2) corresponds to unique factor prices (w, r) (Feenstra, p.10)
Explain: FPE Set
Explain: The Lerner Diagram and Factor Prices
Feenstra, p.26–27
Explain: HOS vs. HOV model (Feenstra, p.31-)
HOS model: 2 x 2 x 2(countries, factors, goods)
HOS model’s basic assumption: identical tech across countries, identical homothetic tastes across countries; differing factor endowments; free trade in goods not factors; No FIRs = endowments within their ‘cone of diversification’ = factor price equalized. Using HO theorem to answer ‘What is the pattern of trade in goods between the countries?’ → U.S. is abundant in scientists → exports high-tech goods.
Overall a poor predictor of reality. (see Leontief’s paradox)
HOV model: M x N many goods, many factors, many countries
Trying to relate the factor content of trade AT^i to the underlying endowments of country i. F^i = AT^i = V^i - s^i V^w
If country i’s endowment of factor k relative to the world endowment exceeds country i’s share of world GDP (Vik / Vwk > si) then we say that country i is abundant in that factor. (see Leamer’s theorem 1980)
Factor contents of trade
country i’s endowment = produced exports substract factors used in imports.
Leamer’s Theorem (Leamer 1980) → redo Leontief Test (robust even w/o balanced trade) → Problem of Leontief’s test is not valide with nonbalaced trade (1947 U.S. had trade surplus!)
Factor is abundant if one country’s factor 1 relative to the world is higher than the same ocuntry’s factor 2 relative to the world.
If capital is abundant relative to labor in country i, then the HOV theorem implies that the capital/labor ratio embodied in production for country i exceeds the capital/labor ratio embodied in consumption. (Feenstra p.39)
Krishna and Panagariya 2002 Theorem
Theorem Feenstra 1996
Melitz Model
Explain: Iceberg cost
If we want to deliver 1 unit of good taking iceberg cost into consideration, at least need to export 1+Tij of goods. Because Tij (iceberg cost ‘melted’ along the way)
Explain: Border Effect
Tariffs, distance and all other extra costs, time-consuming barriers caused by a national border.
Explain: 3 ways of estimating border effect
Explain: Fixed Effect
Steady traits of the sample that are steady or steadily changing over time.
Explain: Krugman 1980 Theorem = Home Market Effect (p.163)
Larger countries tend to attract more firms with a bigger market, thus tend to produce more numbers of products and become a net exporter.
- Krugman’s original model: identical firms, differentiated goods
- CES production function
- Fixed prices (wage) and consumption
Explain: Terms of Trade Effect of Tariffs
Tariff leads to a contraction in the volume of trade without effecting improvement in the terms of trade. (no retaliation)
Term of trade (ToT) is the average price of exports / average price of imports x 100. If export prices rise = improvement of ToT.
Explain: Infant Industry Protection
Explain: Dumping
Explain: Welfare Effect of Trade
Explain: Endogenous Growth
Explain: Knowledge Spillovers
常見的假設:
CES
limited factors
more goods than factors
homothetic tastes
continuum of goods
full employment
zero-profit condition
market clearning condition
perfect competition (long-run)
costless trade (sometimes)
factor mobility across industry and within a nation
transportation costs are symmetric
這學期的貿易課題分成幾類:
- 了解貿易的動力
- 如何估計貿易的流向和量
- 國際分工、多國貿易
- 貿易帶來的優點(Gains from Trade)
- 貧富不均和國內的分配議題
因為時間不夠所以沒有探討貿易和國際金融、國際組織與規範、貿易與全球化等等議題。用的教科書是黑色小聖經Feenstra的Advanced International Trade。